Banglapedia - User contributions [en]

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2024-05-26T08:51:15Z

Nasirkhan:

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2024-05-26T08:36:54Z

Nasirkhan:

Main Page

2023-10-13T21:04:11Z

Nasirkhan:

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'''Banglapedia''' - the '''National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh''', an intellectual output of over 1450 scholars, is so far the most comprehensive reference work on Bangladesh from high ancient period to date. In it users will have access to all branches of knowledge related to Bangladesh. Banglapedia has become a vital and indispensable companion to teachers, students, researchers, professionals, and general readers. As a reference tool, Banglapedia has received enthusiastic response and has been acclaimed nationally and internationally. This revised Second Edition (2012) is an expanded and updated version of the First Edition (2003).

If you notice any discrepancy or mistake in the text of online Banglapedia, please [[Special:Contact|'''inform us''']] so that we can take remedial measures. You assistance will be much appreciated.

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[[bn:প্রধান_পাতা]]

Category:Architecture

2023-10-13T21:02:38Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "Category:Banglapedia"

[[Category:Banglapedia]]

Germ Cell

2023-10-13T20:48:06Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Germ Cell''' the term 'germ' has derived from the Latin word 'germen' which means seed or sprout. The central component of animal reproduction is the germ cell.. These cells are responsible for making connectivity between generations by passing down the information from one generation to another. Nussbaum-Weismann first provided the concept of germ cells. These cells serve as the means by which the genome and cytoplasmic components are passed to the progeny, mostly t..."

'''Germ Cell''' the term 'germ' has derived from the Latin word 'germen' which means seed or sprout. The central component of animal reproduction is the germ cell.. These cells are responsible for making connectivity between generations by passing down the information from one generation to another. Nussbaum-Weismann first provided the concept of germ cells. These cells serve as the means by which the genome and cytoplasmic components are passed to the progeny, mostly through the germ cell-specific processes of meiosis and gametogenesis. These cells differentiate into male and female gametes (sperm and unfertilized egg that unite to form an embryo) and produce a haploid set of chromosomes through meiosis. Haploid cells then combine to make diploid cells called zygote, giving rise to a new individual that creates the genetic diversity required for evolution. The genetic components of germ cells, ie, germline DNA are used to correct deleterious gene variants to avoid the transfer of disease-causing information to the offspring through a widely discussed process called gene therapy. However, ethical issues are a major concern in using germline DNA for gene therapy. [AHM Nurun Nabi]

[[bn:অঙ্কুর কোষ]]

Genotoxic Carcinogen

2023-10-13T20:48:05Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Genotoxic Carcinogen''' act directly on DNA to cause cancer, such as chemical carcinogens, eg, Benzo[a]pyrane of cigarette smoke, physical carcinogens, eg, UV radiation, and biological carcinogens, eg, EBV/HPV. Cancer development is a multi-step process involving initiation, promotion, and progression. The initiator or in vivo metabolites, eg, Benzo[a]pyrane, cause irreversible mutation to DNA that becomes susceptible to promoter action for being transformed into c..."

'''Genotoxic Carcinogen''' act directly on DNA to cause cancer, such as chemical carcinogens, eg, Benzo[a]pyrane of cigarette smoke, physical carcinogens, eg, UV radiation, and biological carcinogens, eg, EBV/HPV.

Cancer development is a multi-step process involving initiation, promotion, and progression. The initiator or in vivo metabolites, eg, Benzo[a]pyrane, cause irreversible mutation to DNA that becomes susceptible to promoter action for being transformed into cancer cells. Initiators initiate carcinogenesis, and promoters, eg, DDT, β-naphthoflavon, polybrominated biphenyls, etc, promote the proliferation of mutant cells, but promoters normally are ineffective if cells are not exposed to initiators. Progression, for instance, by benzoyl peroxide, other peroxides, oxidative stress, and inflammation, is an irreversible stepwise transformation to malignancy. Progression is associated with karyotypic changes related to increased cell growth, invasiveness, metastasis, cell biochemistry and morphology alteration, etc. As virtually all cancer cells are aneuploid, ie, with a wrong number of chromosomes.

Genotoxic carcinogens are potentially mutagenic chemicals when inhaled, ingested, or penetrating the skin, capable of causing direct irreversible mutation in DNA, even at low doses. Chemicals that do not act directly on DNA but interfere with normal cell proliferation through interaction with proteins involved in cell proliferation are non-genotoxic carcinogens. Some genotoxic chemical carcinogens are direct-acting, eg, alkylating and acylating agents like β-propiolactone, Dimethyl sulfate, and indirect-acting agents/pro-carcinogens eg, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, eg, Benz(a)anthracene, Benz(a)pyrene, in cigarette smoke; azo dyes.

A human can be exposed endogenously (maybe through the metabolism of some non-carcinogenic entities) or exogenously to genotoxic agents, eg, formaldehyde, alkylating agents, β₁, benzo[a]pyran, etc. Some metal compounds, eg, specific oxide of arsenic, act indirectly as a genotoxic agent through their interaction with cellular response to DNA damage.

Chemical carcinogens can cause cancer via (i) Point mutations- the replacement of a single nucleotide base with another nucleotide (ii) Frame-shift mutations- addition or deletion of a nucleotide such that in both cases, the protein sequence from that point onward is altered (iii) Chromosomal aberrations- any change in the normal structure or number of chromosomes (iv) Aneuploidy- chromosome number (23) is not a multiple of the normal haploid (v) Polyploidy- more than twice the haploid number of chromosomes. [Mamun Rashid Chowdhury]

[[bn:জিনোটক্সিক কার্সিনোজেন]]

Genome Editing

2023-10-13T20:48:04Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Genome Editing''' the term 'genome' refers to the entire genetic material of an organism or species. An organism's genome contains all the genetic information of that organism. Generally, an organism's genome is the sum of all the cell's DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. For RNA (ribonucleic acid) viruses, the genome is the entire RNA molecules of that virus. By making specific changes in any part of the genome sequence of a particular organism, desired charac..."

'''Genome Editing''' the term 'genome' refers to the entire genetic material of an organism or species. An organism's genome contains all the genetic information of that organism. Generally, an organism's genome is the sum of all the cell's DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. For RNA (ribonucleic acid) viruses, the genome is the entire RNA molecules of that virus.

By making specific changes in any part of the genome sequence of a particular organism, desired characteristics can be added or modified in that organism. Genome editing technology is the technology to precisely modify the desired characteristics of an organism by deleting, adding, or changing the sequence of nucleotides in DNA.
Genome editing is similar to editing text in a word processor on a computer. Just as we can change any word or letter in writing willingly, scientists have developed some technology that allows them to alter genes in the genome. It is called genome editing. Genome editing is the technology to modify living organisms as easily as computer software precisely. Although it may sound like science fiction, genome editing is now a reality in biotechnology.

There are now four known techniques for modifying the human genome. They are zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), transcription-activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN), meganuclease, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR-Cas) system. Among them, CRISPR-Cas is the latest addition to genome editing technology and is currently the most popular and effective approach. For genome editing, except CRISPR-Cas, other techniques are complicated and not user-friendly. ZFN and TALEN are cumbersome as they require complicated protein digestion, synthesis, and validity.

Genome editing is a rapid and accurate tool for creating new, high-yielding crop varieties that are adapted to changing climates. This method has already been used for genome editing on many organisms, including plants. Not only in agriculture, but genome editing technology will also revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of genetic and metabolic diseases in humans and animals. [Md Tofazzal Islam]

[[bn:জিনোম এডিটিং]]

Genome

2023-10-13T20:48:02Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Genome''' the entire genetic information of a living organism is called its genome.All of the hereditary information that is required for the creation and maintenance of life and reproduction are contained within a genome. In humans, a complete copy of the genome is present in the majority of the cells of the body. The genome consists of both the coding and the noncoding DNA, along with chloroplast DNA and mitochondrial DNA. The human genome includes both nuclear and..."

'''Genome''' the entire genetic information of a living organism is called its genome.All of the hereditary information that is required for the creation and maintenance of life and reproduction are contained within a genome. In humans, a complete copy of the genome is present in the majority of the cells of the body. The genome consists of both the coding and the noncoding DNA, along with chloroplast DNA and mitochondrial DNA. The human genome includes both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. On the contrary, ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses, consist of an RNA genome. In 1990, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was conducted to sequence the human genome and identify the genes it contains. It was an international research effort. When HGP was started, it was estimated that the human genome would consist of 50,000 to 140,000 genes. It is now known that roughly 3 billion base pairs and 20,500 genes are present in the human genome. The complete human sequence came out in 2003 (except 1% due to limitations in current research technology). More than 1,800 disease genes have been identified from the findings of HGP. Different species have different genome sizes. The genomes of invertebrates are small, therefore, the number of transposable elements is also small within them. On the other hand, the genomes of fish and Amphibians are intermediate in size. Sometimes even though two organisms are very distantly related, small parts of their genome share a high level of similarity which can be explained by horizontal gene transfer. [Tahirah Yasmin]

[[bn:জিনোম]]

Genetically Modified Organism

2023-10-13T20:48:01Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Genetically Modified Organism''' (GMO) a gene codes for a functional protein such as an enzyme which can then produce a metabolite like a glucose molecule. Metabolites, in turn, are responsible for cell function. Many cells together make an organ, and many organs constitute a living organism. Due to variation in the string of nucleotides (made up of sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate) that make up a gene, its efficacy in producing the relevant protein may be low..."

'''Genetically Modified Organism''' (GMO) a gene codes for a functional protein such as an enzyme which can then produce a metabolite like a glucose molecule. Metabolites, in turn, are responsible for cell function. Many cells together make an organ, and many organs constitute a living organism. Due to variation in the string of nucleotides (made up of sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate) that make up a gene, its efficacy in producing the relevant protein may be low or faulty. Scientists can insert a gene with optimal function and create an organism with the altered gene. The organism so produced is genetically modified. So we can have genetically modified bacteria, plants, or animals. The efficient gene has to be delivered within a DNA vector referred to as a recombinant molecule, allowing entry into a single cell. For genetically modified bacteria, the vector with the efficient gene can live inside the bacterial cell. In the case of plants, we usually use a natural vector that can insert the efficient gene into plant genomic DNA and propagate along with plant DNA. In the case of mammalian cells, we sometimes use viral vectors, which help the efficient gene insert into mammalian genomic DNA. Useful examples of GM bacteria can produce the clotting agent called rennet which is used in making cheese, or GM bacteria which produce insulin. An important GM plant of Bangladesh is the BT eggplant, which has a gene that produces a protein called Cry1Ac. This protein is toxic to insect guts but not to humans because of differences in their respective digestive tracts. Therefore, BT eggplant is not destroyed by the FSB insect, which causes intensive damage to eggplants. GM mosquitoes (Aedesaegypti) have been released in several countries to reduce the populations of disease-causing mosquitoes. The GM mosquito males carry a lethal gene, producing a product that will kill the female progenies. The female mosquitoes are the ones that bite and spread dangerous viruses which cause diseases like Zika and Dengue. Recently, blindness was cured by inserting an efficient gene into the human retina. [Zeba Islam Seraj]

[[bn:জিনগতভাবে পরিবর্তিত জীব]]

Genetic Disease

2023-10-13T20:48:00Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Genetic Disease''' a genetic disease is a health condition caused by an abnormality in the genome. The genome is the total collection of genetic material which is organized inside the nucleus of a cell as microscopic assemblies known as chromosomes. The human genome consists of approximately 25,000 genes. A gene is a segment of DNA that influences a particular biological function and is passed down from parent to offspring. Genetic disease is caused by a change or mu..."

'''Genetic Disease''' a genetic disease is a health condition caused by an abnormality in the genome. The genome is the total collection of genetic material which is organized inside the nucleus of a cell as microscopic assemblies known as chromosomes. The human genome consists of approximately 25,000 genes. A gene is a segment of DNA that influences a particular biological function and is passed down from parent to offspring. Genetic disease is caused by a change or mutation in single or multiple genes or a numerical or structural abnormality in the chromosome. The responsible mutation can occur in the embryonic stage (de novo mutation) or can be inherited from the parents. Genetic disorders passed from one or both parents to their offspring are inherited diseases.

In humans, there are 46 chromosomes. One pair member comes from the father, and the other comes from the mother. Out of these 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are known as autosomes, and the last pair is called the sex chromosome. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes that perform a unique function. Sex chromosomes determine whether an organism is male or female. The autosomes are the same for males and females, but the combination of sex chromosomes is XY for males and XX for females. Genetic diseases are classified based on the type and location of the mutation, such as autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, X-linked, Y-liked, and mitochondria-related.

Genetic diseases may also occur due to a numerical abnormality of the chromosomes, of which Down syndrome, Klinefelter, and Patau syndrome are notable. So far, more than 5,000 genetic diseases have been identified, and however, most of them are rare by themselves. [Sharif Akhteruzzaman]

[[bn:জেনেটিক রোগ]]

Functional Food

2023-10-13T20:47:58Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Functional Food''' are everyday foods that offer us additional support for one or more organs in both healthy and pathological conditions. Functional foods offer active bioactive compound(s) in addition to their regular nutritional content, and those bioactive compound(s) exhibit additional positive health effects. Functional foods are becoming progressively well-liked over the globe these days. People who live in developed nations include functional foods in their e..."

'''Functional Food''' are everyday foods that offer us additional support for one or more organs in both healthy and pathological conditions. Functional foods offer active bioactive compound(s) in addition to their regular nutritional content, and those bioactive compound(s) exhibit additional positive health effects. Functional foods are becoming progressively well-liked over the globe these days. People who live in developed nations include functional foods in their everyday diets.

Different bioactive substances, including carotenoids, peptides, polyphenols, etc., remain present in different types of functional food. These functions aid in growth and development, offer protection from oxidative stress, control metabolic activity, and more. Commercially functional foods are being manufactured in Japan. the United States, and Europe due to the high demand of the consumers.

Japan was the first country in the world that introduced the concept of functional food in mid 1980s.Later in 90s the European Commission Concerted Action on Functional Food Science in Europe (FUFOSE) was created to make a science based conceptual approach to functional food market.

Functional food can be grossly categorized into three categories as follow: (a) Conventional functional foods (unmodified natural food), examples: Whole fruits, vegetables grown, nuts, fish meats, etc. (b) Modified functional foods (These foods are modified through enrichment. fortification etc.) examples: Vitamin A-fortified orange juice, omega -3-fatty acid fortified eggs, etc. (c) Ingredient that has food functionality (Isolated or synthesized), examples: Pre and probiotics available in the ready to use form. [Hossain Uddin Shekhar]

[[bn:কার্যকরী খাদ্য]]

Foot and Mouth Disease

2023-10-13T20:47:57Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Foot and Mouth Disease''' (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of all cloven-footed animals, primarily cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, deer and pigs. This is also called Khurarog, Khurachol and Batna in Bangladesh. The leading cause of FMD is an RNA virus called Apthovirus under Picornaviridae family. There are seven distinct serotypes (A, O, C, Asia-1, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3) and 62 sub-types of the virus. The reported serotypes in Bangladesh are A, O, C, Asia-1..."

'''Foot and Mouth Disease''' (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of all cloven-footed animals, primarily cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, deer and pigs. This is also called Khurarog, Khurachol and Batna in Bangladesh. The leading cause of FMD is an RNA virus called Apthovirus under Picornaviridae family. There are seven distinct serotypes (A, O, C, Asia-1, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3) and 62 sub-types of the virus. The reported serotypes in Bangladesh are A, O, C, Asia-1. Respiratory tract is the natural route of FMD virus infection. The virus is excreted through saliva, urine, dung, milk, skin, fluid of blisters. The virus can spread from sick to healthy animals through food, inhalation and contact. The incubation period of this FMD virus is 2-7 days. At first, there is an onset of fever (104°F-106°F) along with depression and anorexia. There is gradual development of an acute painful stomatitis. The characteristic blisters or vesicles appear in the tongue, lips, dental pad, gums, pharynx, muzzle, palate, teats and on feet. Salivation is increased, wound is developed in mouth and feet, body weight is reduced, milk production is decreased and sometimes secondary bacterial infection may complicate the disease. The disease is more severe in calves that may die even before showing any symptoms. FMD can be primarily diagnosed on the basis of history, clinical signs and symptoms. There is no specific treatment for FMD, however, if some symptomatic treatment with good care is given, good results can be obtained. Infected animals should be kept in a clean and dry place separately. Paracetamol or Tolphaminic acid group drugs can be used to reduce fever and pain. Wounds on the tongue and foot may be washed with 2% alum or 0.01% potassium permanganate. In addition, for FMD cure, broad-spectrum antibiotics (sulfadimidine, strepto-penicillin) and 1% ivermectin can be applied to prevent secondary infection. The disease can be controlled by vaccinating the animals, specifically twice a year, with inactivated vaccine that is polyvalent and prepared against the dominant FMD virus serotypes. Other effective measures to control FMD are ring vaccination administering monovalent vaccine in an outbreak area and border vaccination. Strict quarantine measures should be followed for any imported or newly purchased animal. [Md. Anwar Hossain]

[[bn:ক্ষুরারোগ]]

Food Toxicology

2023-10-13T20:47:56Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Food Toxicology''' deals with the toxic effects of natural and synthetic poisons and toxicants present in diverse foods and food products. Food toxicology is an important branch of food chemistry, and this area of science is gaining importance as the food supply chain is taking a multidimensional and multinational approach. So any level of contamination or intoxication will have widespread adverse health effects. Food toxicology deals with the toxic effects of food o..."

'''Food Toxicology''' deals with the toxic effects of natural and synthetic poisons and toxicants present in diverse foods and food products. Food toxicology is an important branch of food chemistry, and this area of science is gaining importance as the food supply chain is taking a multidimensional and multinational approach. So any level of contamination or intoxication will have widespread adverse health effects. Food toxicology deals with the toxic effects of food on living organisms, as well as the identification of toxins and their harmful, detrimental, or adverse effects.

The three main classes of toxicants present in food are as follow: (a) naturally occurring toxins. (b) Toxicants from Microorganisms 3.Toxic chemicals, pesticides, and insecticides.
There are many living organisms grwon on foods that produce toxins naturally. These toxins are not harmful to the producing organism but they may be toxic to other creatures, including humans, for example, poisonous mushrooms, lectins, afla toxin etc.

Microorganisms such as different types of pathogenic bacteria and fungi are also capable of producing toxins. Microbial toxins may cause severe damage to the host tissues and immune system. The Shiga toxin, produced by the bacteria Shigella, is a potent biological toxins. Similarly, botulinum toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum is the most potent neurotoxic food poison.

Several factors determine the toxicity of a pesticide, e.g., dose, its structure, hosts’ immunity, etc. In the case of humans generally, insecticides are more toxic compared to herbicides. The exposure level of the toxin is always very important, as severity varies with the exposure level. The exposure route also plays an important role too. Different exposure routes such as swallowing, inhaling or direct skin contact have different consequences. [Hossain Uddin Shekhar]

[[bn:ফুড টক্সিকোলজি]]

Flyover

2023-10-13T20:47:54Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "A section of Mayor Mohammed Hanif Flyover '''Flyover''' a flyover or overpass is a bridge that carries an elevated roadway or railway line over another roadway or railway line, including or excluding supplementary roads to communicate between the two. When two roads cross on the same level, both are closed and opened in turns by signal, and the traffic movement at the crossing point becomes half. This system causes delays and..."

[[Image:Flyover.jpg|right|thumbnail|400px|A section of Mayor Mohammed Hanif Flyover]]
'''Flyover''' a flyover or overpass is a bridge that carries an elevated roadway or railway line over another roadway or railway line, including or excluding supplementary roads to communicate between the two. When two roads cross on the same level, both are closed and opened in turns by signal, and the traffic movement at the crossing point becomes half. This system causes delays and traffic congestion when the traffic on the roads increases. To avoid this situation in busy crossing, one road is elevated by constructing a bridge to allow free traffic movement on both the roads. The elevated road is called flyover. Again, when a road having no scope for lateral expansion becomes overloaded with traffic, another high-level road over the existing road is constructed to reduce the traffic load of the ground-level road. The high-level road is called a flyover, usually used by fast-moving traffic. Flyovers are also constructed on expressways and national highways to cross local roads and other obstructions.

[[Image:Faridpur-BarisalNationalHighways.jpg|left|thumbnail|400px|Flyover at the Intersection of Dhaka-Khulna and Faridpur-Barisal National Highways]]
Construction of flyovers in the cities improves traffic flow and reduces traffic congestion, but they have adverse effects on users of the ground and first floors of the buildings on both sides of the flyovers. They are deprived of light and openness due to obstruction of the flyovers. Flyovers take the sound and vehicular emissions and particulates to higher levels that cause wider dispersion of pollutants in the surrounding environment. Flyovers, not having adequate space for ascending and descending ramps or that occupy enough space for ground level roads, become the cause of traffic congestion in many cities and towns.

Many flyovers have already been constructed in Dhaka and Chittagong cities to ease traffic congestion; Mayor Mohammed Hanif flyover constructed in Dhaka is the longest among them. Other important flyovers in Dhaka are the Mirpur-Airport flyover, Magbazar-Mouchak flyover, Kuril Flyover, Mohakhali flyover, Banani flyover, Tejgoan link flyover, and Khilgoan flyover. The most impressive flyover in Bangladesh is located at Bhanga, Faridpur, at the crossing of Dhaka-Khulna National Highway (N8-N805) and Faridpur-Barisal Highway (N8-N804). [M. Feroze Ahmed]

[[bn:ফ্লাইওভার]]

Fertilization

2023-10-13T20:47:53Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Fertilization''' is the union of two haploid gametes, sperm, and ovum, to restore a diploid individual in the form of the zygote. The male and female gametes are produced from the founder or germ cells of the testis and ovary through a process called spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females. The spermatogenesis process starts after the onset of puberty due to the influence of the male sex hormone testosterone, which produces millions of sperm in a continuous..."

'''Fertilization''' is the union of two haploid gametes, sperm, and ovum, to restore a diploid individual in the form of the zygote. The male and female gametes are produced from the founder or germ cells of the testis and ovary through a process called spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females. The spermatogenesis process starts after the onset of puberty due to the influence of the male sex hormone testosterone, which produces millions of sperm in a continuous manner. In contrast, only an ovum is produced in each reproductive cycle that varies from 18 to 24 days (on average 21 days, known as the estrous cycle) in different farm animals and 28 days in humans (menstrual cycle). Multiple ovulations occur simultaneously in every estrous cycle, particularly for multiparous animals like goats, sheep, pigs, cats, and dogs. Spermatozoa require maturational changes in the head of sperm, known as acrosomal reaction (6-8 hours) that occurs in the female reproductive tract to establish an association between spermatozoa and egg, enabling to attach and penetrate sperm into the ovum. In the fertilization process, the fusion of the membranes of two gametes is the most significant event that allows forming of a channel for transferring genetic materials from one cell to the other. Millions of sperms take part in this journey. Those move forward from the place of semen deposition (vagina) to the site of fertilization. However, several hundred (500-800) could reach the target site, and a single spermatozoon gets a chance to penetrate the ovum in the fertilization process. Fertilization usually occurs in the junction between the ampulla and isthmus of the fallopian tube that connects an ovary to the uterus. After fertilization, the zygote enters a series of mitotic divisions that results in cellular differentiation and embryonic development. [Mohammad Shamsul Alam Bhuiyan]

[[bn:নিষিক্তকরণ]]

Fertility

2023-10-13T20:47:52Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Fertility''' is the natural capability to produce offspring through regular sexual activity following the onset of puberty. Fertility is one of the main factors affecting the reproductive efficiency directly involved with the profit-loss equation of any farm, and herd fertility is the sole indicator of good or bad reproductive management practice. Fertility is directly associated not only with the female health condition but also equally important for contribution of..."

'''Fertility''' is the natural capability to produce offspring through regular sexual activity following the onset of puberty. Fertility is one of the main factors affecting the reproductive efficiency directly involved with the profit-loss equation of any farm, and herd fertility is the sole indicator of good or bad reproductive management practice. Fertility is directly associated not only with the female health condition but also equally important for contribution of male. The fertility rate denotes the reproductive efficiency of a female and is defined as the mean number of offspring born during her lifetime. Several factors are involved with normal fertility, such as the production of viable eggs by the female and sufficient healthy sperms by the male, successful transport of sperms through the female reproductive tract to the site of fertilization (fallopian tube), the fusion of sperm and ovum and implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus. Problem(s) associated with any of those factors mentioned above can cause infertility, a phenomenon that refers to any difficulty or inability to establish clinical pregnancy. Factors contributing to reduced fertility or infertility in farm animals are nutrition, age, genotype, hormonal imbalance, management, body condition score, diseases, anatomical abnormalities in the reproductive tract, etc. Fertility usually declines with the progression of age in both sexes. In addition, high-yielding animals tend to decline in fertility as there is a negative genetic correlation between better production and reproduction. Good fertility can be achieved through insemination after 12-18 hours of the onset of estrous in cattle and buffaloes, 24-36 hours in sheep and goats, and 48-72 hours in the horse. The proper time of insemination and efficiency of the inseminator are important factors for successful conception. [Mohammad Shamsul Alam Bhuiyan]

[[bn:প্রজননক্ষমতা]]

Fermentation

2023-10-13T20:47:51Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Fermentation''' is a metabolic process carried out by microorganisms that produce chemical alterations in organic matter due to the action of enzymes. The word 'ferment' comes from the Latin word 'fervere', which means 'to boil'. Ironically, fermentation is possible without heat, and the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation is a natural process that usually takes place in anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) and in the presence of beneficial mic..."

'''Fermentation''' is a metabolic process carried out by microorganisms that produce chemical alterations in organic matter due to the action of enzymes. The word 'ferment' comes from the Latin word 'fervere', which means 'to boil'. Ironically, fermentation is possible without heat, and the science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation is a natural process that usually takes place in anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) and in the presence of beneficial microorganisms (such as yeast, mold, and bacteria) that get their energy from fermentation. While producing the energy, they break down carbohydrates that undergo several reaction steps and produce energy in ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). Alcoholic beverages like wine, beer, and cider are made by the chemical conversion of carbohydrates into ethanol, which is also referred to as fermentation. To the food industries, it is simply any process that involves a microbial activity that results in favorable modification in the foodstuffs. People usually use three distinct types of fermentation: Lactic acid fermentation, Ethanol fermentation/alcohol fermentation, and Acetic acid fermentation.

Long before the biochemical process was fully understood, people used fermentation to produce wine, cheese, and beer. Fermentation is an old-age process used by humans, even without the deep knowledge of the mechanism. By demonstrating that fermentation is brought on by live cells in the 1850s and 1860s, Louis Pasteur became the first zymurgist or scientist to research fermentation. Fermentation occurs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including humans. Outside of the food business, certain fermentation products are significant from a commercial standpoint. For instance, acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation results in the production of chemical solvents like acetone and butanol. Through mixed acid fermentation, complex organic pharmaceutical molecules including penicillin and other antibiotics, vaccines, and vitamins are produced. Fermented foods are rich in probiotics, beneficial microorganisms that help maintain a healthy gut, and have been associated with health benefits — from better digestion to stronger immunity. [Mohammad Riazul Islam]

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Environmental Pollution

2023-10-13T20:47:49Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Environmental Pollution''' can be defined as any unwanted change in chemical,physical, or biological features of any component of the environment, ie, water, air, or soil, which can cause damaging effects on several forms of living systems. Water pollution is caused by natural or human activities and makes water unusable. The polluted water cannot be used for drinking, domestic activities, irrigation of crops, or industrial purposes. The major causes of water polluti..."

'''Environmental Pollution''' can be defined as any unwanted change in chemical,physical, or biological features of any component of the environment, ie, water, air, or soil, which can cause damaging effects on several forms of living systems. Water pollution is caused by natural or human activities and makes water unusable. The polluted water cannot be used for drinking, domestic activities, irrigation of crops, or industrial purposes. The major causes of water pollution are municipal wastewater, industrial waste, and agricultural waste. Air pollution is caused by the introduction of chemical components, particulate matter, or biological materials, which causes discomfort to humans or other living organisms. The significant causes of air pollution are carbon dioxide (caused by deforestation and combustion of fossil fuel), sulfur dioxide, and sulfur oxide (caused by an eruption of sulfur-containing compounds and combustion of fossil fuel). Industrialization and urbanization are the leading causes of soil pollution due to improper waste disposal. When sound becomes annoying, it disrupts normal human activities. In urban areas transport system is the principal source of noise pollution; the other causes are construction works, industrial noise, and loudspeakers. Global warming is a significant consequence of environmental pollution, a major global concern. Acid rain is caused by air pollution, which kills trees and acidifies soil and water. Environmental pollution is also a serious threat to human health. It is responsible for noncommunicable diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, etc. [Md. Zakir Hossain Hawlader]

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Embryo

2023-10-13T20:47:48Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Embryo''' is the early developmental stage of all multicellular organisms. In general, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization. The fertilized egg undergoes a series of cellular divisions known as cleavage without increasing cell mass up until 6 or 7 days and moving downward gradually in the fallopian tube. Only nuclear material (chromatin) is synthesized between divisions at the expense of the cytoplasmic substance of..."

'''Embryo''' is the early developmental stage of all multicellular organisms. In general, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization. The fertilized egg undergoes a series of cellular divisions known as cleavage without increasing cell mass up until 6 or 7 days and moving downward gradually in the fallopian tube. Only nuclear material (chromatin) is synthesized between divisions at the expense of the cytoplasmic substance of the cell. The cleavage pattern is quite similar among the individuals of a species but varies mainly among the animal species. A hollow ball-shaped cellular structure called blastula is formed after the success of several cleavages. In farm animals, the hatched blastocyst completes the implantation process in the uterine wall within 14-16 days of fertilization. The blastocyst is considered an embryo when surrounded by an amniotic sac, a fluid-filled membrane that protects the embryo. The maternal recognition of the embryo in the uterus stimulates placental development, which transfers nutrients to the growing embryo from the mother through the umbilical cord. After fertilization, placentation starts on day 21 in cattle. However, the embryo is nourished by the yolk in birds and amphibians. During the third and fourth week of gastrulation in cattle, the embryo differentiates into three types of tissue ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The ectoderm gives rise to skin, nervous system, and tooth enamel development; the mesoderm forms the circulatory system, connective tissues, bones, and muscles; and the digestive, lungs and urinary systems are developed from the endoderm. The embryo becomes a fetus after the 9th week of pregnancy and the fetal period continues until birth. The fetal period is characterized by rapid body growth and maturation of organs and systems. Fetus size depends mainly on genetic factors such as breed, genotype, sex of the fetus, and other environmental factors like age of the mother, nutrition, and management. [Mohammad Shamsul Alam Bhuiyan]

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Elevated Expressway

2023-10-13T20:47:47Z

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Ecology

2023-10-13T20:47:45Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Ecology''' is the study of the relationship between organisms with the surrounding environment. It is a branch of biological science. German Biologist Earnest Haeckle coined the term Ecology in 1906 from two Greek words Oikos means house logos means study. It is a science that investigates organisms concerning the environment. Moreover, it is the study of the structure and functions of nature. It has excellent practical implications on environmental interaction among..."

'''Ecology''' is the study of the relationship between organisms with the surrounding environment. It is a branch of biological science. German Biologist Earnest Haeckle coined the term Ecology in 1906 from two Greek words Oikos means house logos means study. It is a science that investigates organisms concerning the environment. Moreover, it is the study of the structure and functions of nature. It has excellent practical implications on environmental interaction among the organisms of the same species and different species. It has significant consequences on conservation, management, and natural resources management. The ecology has been broadly classified as animal ecology and plant ecology; additionally, it has been classified as autecology and synecology. Autecology deals with a single species of the organism, while synecology deals with diversified species of organism. The major importance of ecology are the distribution and abundance of the organism, their temporal changes in occurrence, abundance and functionality, inter and interrelationship among the organism, behavior, and their evolutionary development. [Md. Abdul Baset Mia]

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Ecological Chemistry

2023-10-13T20:47:44Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Ecological Chemistry''' a research discipline that deals with understanding complex interactions between or among different organisms in a given ecosystem via chemical signals. Ecological chemistry is evolved by cross-fertilizing two diverse disciplines: ecology and biochemistry. It is the study of chemicals involved in the interactions of living organisms. Ecological chemistry is everywhere. Chemically-mediated interactions between organisms are pervasive at all lev..."

'''Ecological Chemistry''' a research discipline that deals with understanding complex interactions between or among different organisms in a given ecosystem via chemical signals. Ecological chemistry is evolved by cross-fertilizing two diverse disciplines: ecology and biochemistry. It is the study of chemicals involved in the interactions of living organisms. Ecological chemistry is everywhere. Chemically-mediated interactions between organisms are pervasive at all levels of biological organization, from microbes to humans, across all biomes and habitats.

Chemical signals are a common language used for communication throughout the living world. They are minute in quantity in the cells of living organisms and hence difficult to detect. However, these signals are very target specific. Multiple microorganisms in the ecosystem use various secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols, etc, for particular communication and interactions. For example, insects use tiny biomolecules called pheromones for mating and communication. Scientists have discovered thousands of pheromones so far. Some of them are used as pheromone traps to control harmful insects in agriculture as a safe, sustainable technology for human health.

Various secondary compounds are important in the complex interactions between animals and plants or plants and microorganisms in the natural environment. Ecological chemistry includes the biochemistry of plant pollination and productivity, defense mechanisms of plants and other organisms, etc. Chemicals that act as messengers between species are commonly termed semiochemicals. ‘Semeon’ means a signal in Greek. Chemical signals or small biomolecules used in interactions between/among organisms, also called eco-chemicals, include pheromones, allomones, kairomones, attractants, and repellants. All insects use semiochemicals that can be used in the biological control of insect pests.

Semiochemicals are biodegradable, target-specific, and environmentally safe. Only target harmful insects are adversely affected by their application. The semiochemicals are relatively non-toxic to the non-targeted organisms. German biochemist Adolf Butenandt was the first to identify such a chemical, bombykol (a chemically well-characterized pheromone secreted by female silkworms to attract mates). Stink bugs and blister beetles secrete defense semiochemicals commonly known as allomones. A familiar example of a kairomone is the lactic acid component of human sweat, which attracts mosquitoes. The smell of flowers is a typical example of environmental chemistry that benefits both the sender and receiver. Allomone production is a common form of defense of plant species against herbivores. Allomones sometimes become kairomones due to an evolutionary arms race. Knowledge of ecological chemistry can be applied to managing pests and pathogens of crop plants in bio-rational ways for sustainable agriculture, environment, and health. [Md. Tofazzal Islam]

[[bn:ইকোলজিক্যাল কেমিস্ট্রি]]

Earthworm

2023-10-13T20:47:43Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Earthworm''' are typical annelids, ie, true segmented coelomate invertebrate worms that live in moist soil environments under three broad habitats, epigeic (litter dwelling), endogeic (soil-dwelling), and anecic (deep burrowing). They are nocturnal, and thus people cannot see them during day time. The naming of earthworms is due to their common occurrences in unpolluted cultivated lands where piles of fecal casting can be seen at the mouth of a tunnel they live in. T..."

'''Earthworm''' are typical annelids, ie, true segmented coelomate invertebrate worms that live in moist soil environments under three broad habitats, epigeic (litter dwelling), endogeic (soil-dwelling), and anecic (deep burrowing). They are nocturnal, and thus people cannot see them during day time. The naming of earthworms is due to their common occurrences in unpolluted cultivated lands where piles of fecal casting can be seen at the mouth of a tunnel they live in. This nature of tunnel-digging is related to their feeding habits. They feed on organic matters, dead animals, eggs, etc, by ingesting soil and releasing paste-like fecal materials called ‘casting’ at the tunnel top. The tunnel could be a few centimeters from the soil surface to even three meters below. They are also called 'natural-plow' as they act as a ‘soil-conditioner’ by mixing the topsoil with the bottom soil due to the activities. More than 7000 species of earthworm are distributed in most temperate to tropical soils of the world. However, in Bangladesh, this is the least studied group. So far, 42 species have been identified under 3 families. They are hermaphrodites, ie, each animal bears both male and female reproductive organs. After mating, eggs are released in a cocoon. A juvenile comes out of the cascades. They are seldomly used as lab animals in biology and zoology lab classes in Bangladesh. Live or minced earthworm sometime be used for traditional fish baits and animal feed as protein sources. A few species are being used for producing quality vermicompost in Bangladesh. [Md. Niamul Naser]

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Dodhi

2023-10-13T20:47:41Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Dodhi''' or Doi is a kind of fermented food that originated from milk. Milk is converted into Dodhi due to the fermentation of lactose, the carbohydrate present in milk, by some special types of bacteria. Doi can be made by coagulating milk by adding starter culture at 2-3% to lukewarm milk and keeping it at 37-42°C temperature for 4-12 hours. In general, dodhi made before 2-3 days is considered a starter culture rich in beneficial bacteria. The carbohydrate in milk..."

'''Dodhi''' or Doi is a kind of fermented food that originated from milk. Milk is converted into Dodhi due to the fermentation of lactose, the carbohydrate present in milk, by some special types of bacteria. Doi can be made by coagulating milk by adding starter culture at 2-3% to lukewarm milk and keeping it at 37-42°C temperature for 4-12 hours. In general, dodhi made before 2-3 days is considered a starter culture rich in beneficial bacteria. The carbohydrate in milk is broken down into acid by the microorganisms present in the starter culture, which helps to coagulate the milk. In western countries, Dodhi is termed yogurt. However, yogurt is made from a specific starter culture, which is somewhat unique compared to that used for making Dodhi.

The flavor of Dodhi is slightly sour due to the presence of acid. Sweed doi is made from milk to which sugar is added, while sour Dodhi is made from milk without any added sugar. Dodhi is generally more palatable and digestible as compared to milk. The microorganisms present in Dodhi is proved to be highly beneficial for the human body. These microorganisms improve digestive capacity by killing the harmful microbes present in the human digestive system. Dodhi generally contains 4-5% fat, 5-9% protein, 4-15% carbohydrate and 0.8% mineral. Dodhi remains palatable for up to 2 days at room temperature and 12 days when kept refrigerated (4°C).

The color of Doi ranges from white to light brown depending on the degree of heat treatment of milk. Popular beverages like Lassi, Borhani, Ghol, etc., are prepared from Dodhi. Sour Dodhi is sometimes served by adding sugar, fruits, or fruit juice. Dodhi is generally consumed directly as an item of food. However, sour Dodhi is vital in different culinary practices, e.g., Korma, Rezala, Doi bora, etc. Dodhi is used to prepare different appetizers, e.g., Raita, Yoghurt sauce, salad, etc.

It is speculated that the technology of making Dodhi was invented in the then Mesopotamia (current-day Iraq) some 5000 years ago. Not only the milk from a cow but milk from other domestic animals like buffalo, goats, sheep, camels, etc., are widely used to make Dodhi. It is a Bengali ritual to serve Dodhi after a feast and as a refreshment. Dodhi is widely prepared and sold throughout Bangladesh. However, the district of Bogra is famous for its high-quality Dodhi. In the coastal areas of Bangladesh, sour Dodhi made from Buffalo milk is popular. Dodhi is especially adored throughout the world for its delicate taste and odor. [Raihan Habib]

''See also'' [[Milk|milk]], [[Dairy Product|dairy product]].

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DNA Fingerprinting

2023-10-13T20:47:40Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''DNA Fingerprinting''' are a scientific way to identify a person based on the information contained in a DNA molecule. It uses advanced molecular techniques to identify or establish a link between two individuals by analyzing micro satellite sequences. Like the potential fingerprints at our fingertips, each individual has a unique DNA fingerprint. Traditional fingerprints can be modified by plastic surgery, but DNA is present in almost every cell of the human body and..."

'''DNA Fingerprinting''' are a scientific way to identify a person based on the information contained in a DNA molecule. It uses advanced molecular techniques to identify or establish a link between two individuals by analyzing micro satellite sequences. Like the potential fingerprints at our fingertips, each individual has a unique DNA fingerprint. Traditional fingerprints can be modified by plastic surgery, but DNA is present in almost every cell of the human body and cannot be altered by any known treatments. Modern molecular biology techniques can generate DNA fingerprints from trace biological samples such as blood, saliva, hair, bone teeth, tissue samples, and semen. The current method of DNA fingerprinting using micro satellite sequence promises to identify an individual in the order of one in a trillion or even more. The first DNA typing method was described as DNA fingerprinting and was later given many names, such as genetic fingerprinting, DNA testing, and DNA typing. In today's language, it is best known as DNA profiling.

The introduction of DNA profiling technology into the judiciary was an important step forward and, in fact, revolutionized the criminal justice system. This technology is considered one of the most important discoveries of the last century. This technology has proven extremely useful in violent crimes such as murder and rape, in resolving disputes over paternity and maternity, and in identifying disaster victims. Recent advances in DNA profiling technology have enabled law enforcement agencies to resolve cases that were previously thought to be unsolvable. The technology was first admitted as evidence used in the United Kingdom in 1987. Since then, it has become an integral part of the criminal justice system worldwide. More than 150 countries worldwide have already adopted this technology, and Bangladesh as a country introduced the technology in 2006. [Sharif Akhteruzzaman]

''See also'' [[DNA|dna]].

[[bn:ডিএনএ ফিঙ্গারপ্রিন্টিং]]

DNA

2023-10-13T20:47:39Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''DNA''' Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the hereditary unit in humans and the majority of living organisms. All living things contain DNA within their cells that hold the genetic instructions. In eukaryotes, most of the cellular DNA is located within a membrane-bound structure called the nucleus (which is referred to as nuclear DNA), but the mitochondria may also contain a small amount of DNA (which is referred to as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA). In contrast, in prokary..."

'''DNA''' Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the hereditary unit in humans and the majority of living organisms. All living things contain DNA within their cells that hold the genetic instructions. In eukaryotes, most of the cellular DNA is located within a membrane-bound structure called the nucleus (which is referred to as nuclear DNA), but the mitochondria may also contain a small amount of DNA (which is referred to as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA). In contrast, in prokaryotes, the genome is present in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid as they do not contain any inner membranes. DNA is made of nucleotides. A nucleotide has two components: a backbone composed of alternating deoxyribose and phosphate groups, and each sugar is attached to one of four nitrogenous bases, known as adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). DNA bases also pair up to form base pairs in which A is always paired with T and C is paired with G. About 3 billion bases are present in human DNA, and above 99 percent of human DNA is the same in the human population. Nucleotides are arranged in two long helices that are wrapped around each other to create a spiral called a double helix. A distinguishing characteristic of DNA is that it can make identical copies of itself which is defined as replication. Small sections of DNA, called genes, are used as codes for the synthesis of RNA and protein biomolecules that are required for the normal function of an organism. The complete set of genetic information contained within an organism is called its genome. The genome of a living organism is stored in chromosomes that are long molecules of DNA. Because of the tiny size of the cell, and because there are many DNA molecules inside a cell of each organism, each DNA molecule needs to be compact within the chromosome. Laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) use genetic material from multiple sources and bring them together to generate recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules. [Tahirah Yasmin]

''See also'' [[DNA Fingerprinting|dna fingerprinting]].

[[bn:ডিএনএ]]

Disease Outbreak

2023-10-13T20:47:37Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Disease Outbreak''' a sudden rise in the number of cases of a disease over normal expectancy in a geographical location or season, ie, above the baseline or endemic level of the disease. It may involve a small and localized community or impact thousands of people across continents. The occurrences of disease cases depend on the disease-causing agent and the size, existing, and previous exposure to the agents. Several outbreak patterns can help identify the transmissi..."

'''Disease Outbreak''' a sudden rise in the number of cases of a disease over normal expectancy in a geographical location or season, ie, above the baseline or endemic level of the disease. It may involve a small and localized community or impact thousands of people across continents. The occurrences of disease cases depend on the disease-causing agent and the size, existing, and previous exposure to the agents. Several outbreak patterns can help identify the transmission method or source and predict the future infection rate.

Outbreaks can start from (i) a common source, such as a contaminated water supply can infect all victims, in a point-source outbreak, brief exposure makes everyone ill within one incubation period, and case patients may have a wide range of exposure and incubation or (ii) a propagated outbreak, cases with more than one incubation period, results from transmission via direct person-to-person contact, as with syphilis, or may also be vehicle-borne (eg, by sharing needles in hepatitis B or HIV) or vector-borne (eg, by mosquitoes in yellow fever).

Occurrence patterns of disease outbreaks are either Endemic – a communicable disease, ie, influenza, pneumonia, etc, that refers to the natural prevalence of the disease or infectious agent in a population within a geographic location, a particular place, or, among a specific community; Epidemic – when this disease affected a considerably huge number of people at the same time than is usual at that time among that population and may spread through one or several communities. [Mamun Rashid Chowdhury]

[[bn:রোগের প্রাদুর্ভাব]]

Diphtheria Toxin

2023-10-13T20:47:36Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Diphtheria Toxin''' a potentially lethal infection mainly caused by toxigenic ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' strains. A similar illness could be produced occasionally by ''Corynebacterium ulcerans'' and rarely by ''Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis'' strains. In general, the bacterium ''C. diphtheriae'' was found only in the upper respiratory tract of cattle, horses, and men. The first diphtheria epidemic occurred in Spain in 1613, and Pierre Bretonneau named the d..."

'''Diphtheria Toxin''' a potentially lethal infection mainly caused by toxigenic ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' strains. A similar illness could be produced occasionally by ''Corynebacterium ulcerans'' and rarely by ''Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis'' strains. In general, the bacterium ''C. diphtheriae'' was found only in the upper respiratory tract of cattle, horses, and men. The first diphtheria epidemic occurred in Spain in 1613, and Pierre Bretonneau named the disease diphtheria in 1826. Edwin Klebs identified the causative bacterium in 1883, and Friedrich Löffler first cultured the pathogen and demonstrated exotoxin production in 1884. This bacterium acquired this toxic gene (tox) horizontally from 'corynephage' that d'Herelle first isolated from horse manure in 1918. A firmly adherent pseudomembrane formation in the throat is the usual characteristic symptoms of diphtheria due to acute respiratory infection, although coetaneous infections are possible. Diphtheria toxin causes systemic effects, such as neuropathy and myocarditis. This exotoxin is synthesized as a single polypeptide of molecular weight 62k Daltons. Cell death was caused due to inhibition of protein synthesis by this exotoxin. The causative pathogen, eg, ''Corynebacterium'' spp., was commonly isolated and identified by bacterial culture to confirm the clinical diagnosis. This diagnosis was followed by toxin detection and enzymatic tests. Diphtheria can be treated with diphtheria antitoxin and antimicrobial therapy with timely administration. Huge numbers of diphtheria cases are still reported yearly from various countries in Africa and Asia. Public health actions are required to prevent and control the spread of this disease. [AKM Mahbub Hasan]

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Dentifrice

2023-10-13T20:47:35Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Dentifrice''' is a powder, paste, or liquid, used along with a toothbrush to remove dental stains and food debris, minimize the plaque build-up, strengthen teeth against caries, alleviate sensitivity, and introduce a fresh, pleasantness and clean feeling. Tooth powder was historically used as a dentifrice among the Romans. They made tooth powder from various substances, such as the bones and horns of animals; crabs; oyster shells; and eggshells, sometimes after being..."

'''Dentifrice''' is a powder, paste, or liquid, used along with a toothbrush to remove dental stains and food debris, minimize the plaque build-up, strengthen teeth against caries, alleviate sensitivity, and introduce a fresh, pleasantness and clean feeling. Tooth powder was historically used as a dentifrice among the Romans. They made tooth powder from various substances, such as the bones and horns of animals; crabs; oyster shells; and eggshells, sometimes after being previously burnt. Powdered substances made from charcoal, brick, and salt have been used widely to clean teeth in India and Bangladesh’s rural areas. Baking soda has been the most commonly used tooth powder in modern times. Toothpaste is the most frequently used dentifrice that serves multiple oral hygiene functions. The essential components of toothpaste are abrasive, humectant, binder, and surfactant. Abrasive is a dense cleansing material that aids in removing plaque, food debris, and residual stains from the teeth. The humectant consists of one or more liquids that dissolve other dentifrice ingredients. The binder helps prevent the separation of dense and liquid components during storage. The surfactant is used to generate foam and a smooth sensation during use. The flavor is added, which gives a dentifrice good taste and contributes to mouth freshness. Besides, several other agents are added to a dentifrice formulation, including fluoride to decrease the incidence of dental caries, triclosan along with zinc citrate to obtain anti-gingivitis benefits, pyrophosphate to reduce calculus formation, and peroxide as a whitening agent. Potassium nitrate is also added to some dentifrices, which give benefits the sensitive teeth. A good dentifrice offers many benefits. People should choose a high-quality dentifrice that helps solve oral care challenges. [Hussain Md. Shahjalal]

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Decontamination

2023-10-13T20:47:33Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Decontamination''' is a process of elimination or destruction of contaminants or pollutants or harmful agents, or hazardous materials present in or on an object or area. Contaminants can be toxins, poisons, chemicals, radioactive substances, and microbes or infectious components. Decontamination processes make equipment, devices, foodstuff, and the environment safe to protect us and our surroundings. Cleaning (physical removal of contaminants including dust, soil, an..."

'''Decontamination''' is a process of elimination or destruction of contaminants or pollutants or harmful agents, or hazardous materials present in or on an object or area. Contaminants can be toxins, poisons, chemicals, radioactive substances, and microbes or infectious components. Decontamination processes make equipment, devices, foodstuff, and the environment safe to protect us and our surroundings. Cleaning (physical removal of contaminants including dust, soil, and waste products using water purification, dry and ultrasonic cleaning), Disinfection (utilization of heat or chemicals, ie, disinfectants to remove or reduce the number of viable microbes to a limit not harmful to health but not able to remove bacterial spores), Sterilization (purifies a material by removing viable microbes including bacterial spores and viruses) are the key processes of decontamination. These processes facilitate decontaminating humans, soil, groundwater, and the environment.

Decontamination is required to prevent hospital-acquired infection by cleaning and sterilizing from hospital premises to devices and equipment in primary and secondary care settings. Food-borne diseases can be avoided by decontaminating foodstuffs using ultraviolet light, drying, and heating, pasteurization to kill microbes, depending upon the nature of the food. Thermal processing, introduced by Lazzaro Spallanzani in 1768, prevents food spoilage by decontaminating microbes. Pasteurization, introduced by Louis Pasteur in 1863, is specially used to decontaminate wine, milk, or fruit juice at mild temperature, usually to less than 100OC. John Tyndall is the pioneer of decontaminating foodstuffs by introducing the Tydallization process during the nineteenth century. [AHM Nurun Nabi]

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Cow Dung

2023-10-13T20:47:17Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Cow Dung''' is the waste product (faces) of bovine animal species. These species include cattle, buffalo, bison, yak, and water buffalo. The undigested residue of feeds is passed through the animals' digestive systems. Cow dung, usually a dark brown, is often used as excellent manure (agricultural fertilizer). Cow dung compost is a fertilizer produced by rotting cow dung and waste in an anaerobic or aerobic way in the ground. Cow dung harbors a diverse group of micro..."

'''Cow Dung''' is the waste product (faces) of bovine animal species. These species include cattle, buffalo, bison, yak, and water buffalo. The undigested residue of feeds is passed through the animals' digestive systems. Cow dung, usually a dark brown, is often used as excellent manure (agricultural fertilizer). Cow dung compost is a fertilizer produced by rotting cow dung and waste in an anaerobic or aerobic way in the ground. Cow dung harbors a diverse group of microorganisms that may benefit humans due to their ability to produce a range of metabolites. Being a mixture of feces and urine in the ratio of 3:1, it mainly consists of lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses. It makes an excellent growing medium for garden plants. If not recycled into the soil by species such as earthworms and dung beetles, cow dung can dry out and remain on pasture.

Cow dung, the excreta of a bovine animal, is a cheap and readily available bioresource on our planet. Although many farmers use cow dung as organic fertilizer, traditionally, landless families in villages use cow dung as fuel for cooking purposes by direct burning. It is also used in plastering walls and floors in rural houses to provide insulation during winter and summer. [Quazi M Emdadul Haque]

[[bn:গরুর গোবর]]

Coronavirus

2023-10-13T20:47:16Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Coronavirus''' are zootonic viruses that are enveloped and have positive-sense, single-stranded RNA. Alpha, beta, gamma, and delta are the four genera of coronaviruses. The most pathogenic forms that have been found in their natural habitats, bats, are the alpha and beta forms. Besides, palm civets and camels are believed to have acted as the intermediate for transmitting SARS to humans. Out of the seven coronaviruses, the highly pathogenic and contagious Severe Acut..."

'''Coronavirus''' are zootonic viruses that are enveloped and have positive-sense, single-stranded RNA. Alpha, beta, gamma, and delta are the four genera of coronaviruses. The most pathogenic forms that have been found in their natural habitats, bats, are the alpha and beta forms. Besides, palm civets and camels are believed to have acted as the intermediate for transmitting SARS to humans. Out of the seven coronaviruses, the highly pathogenic and contagious Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) emerged in 2002. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012, and novel coronavirus or SARS-CoV-2 in 2019. But neither SARS-CoV nor MERS-CoV caused vast irreparable loss to humankind, as did SARS-CoV-2. These belong to beta genera along with SARS-CoV, hCoV-HKU1, and hCoV-OC43, while hCoV-NL63 and hCoV-229E belong to alpha genera.

[[Image:Coronavirus.jpg|right|thumbnail|400px|Coronavirus]]
The corona viruses genome ranges from 27000 to 32000 nucleotide bases in length. SARS causes severe clinical manifestations of the lower respiratory tract in humans by entering the mouth, nose, and eyes, leading to severe lung injury by targeting the epithelial cells and spreading the virus in different organs. The symptoms of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV include fever, dry cough, and breath shortness. Some people also had diarrhea and nausea or vomiting. Other symptoms include loss of taste and smell, rash in skin, aches and pains in body, sore throat, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, headache, or fingers or toes discoloration. However, breathing difficulty or breath shortness, chest pain or pressure, and speech or movement loss are the severe symptoms of COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 spreads via close contact with humans who inhale aerosols or droplets from infected individuals coughing, sneezing, talking, or singing. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using nasal and throat swabs are the gold standard for testing the infection. In contrast, antibody and antigen-based tests can be performed using blood samples. [AHM Nurun Nabi]

[[bn:করোনাভাইরাস]]

Climate Change

2023-10-13T20:47:14Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Climate Change''' is the record of change in weather patterns over a long period, often over several years. Therefore climate change will typically refer to seasonal weather patterns and rainfall over several years. Climate change can indicate the average local pattern of the weather or that of the earth compared to a few years ago. Compared to pre-industrial levels, the average global temperature has increased by about 1.5°C compared to pre-industrial levels. This..."

'''Climate Change''' is the record of change in weather patterns over a long period, often over several years. Therefore climate change will typically refer to seasonal weather patterns and rainfall over several years. Climate change can indicate the average local pattern of the weather or that of the earth compared to a few years ago. Compared to pre-industrial levels, the average global temperature has increased by about 1.5°C compared to pre-industrial levels. This increases more towards the North Pole, while this is less so for the South Pole. Such uneven rise in temperature is already making weather patterns less predictable. This disrupts crop planting, growth, and harvesting because the weather can no longer be relied upon. The last 2 to 3 years have already witnessed prolonged droughts, hurricanes, floods, downpours, winter storms, and fires. Fires have ravaged California, Canada, Nordic countries, Australia, and Brazil since 2018 and, more recently, Greece, Spain, and North African countries. The extreme weather events are attributed to Climate Change according to a recent report by IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2021. The warmer temperature is causing massive ice sheets and glaciers to melt accelerated in the Polar Regions. This excess water is also expanding due to the increased temperature, causing sea level rise and enhanced seawater intrusion in coastlines and soil erosion. This is particularly dangerous for low-lying regions like the Maldives and other islands. Climate Change is occurring very rapidly than in any previous recorded history of the world, mainly due to human activity. This includes burning fossil fuels like natural gas, oil, and coal. [Zeba Islam Seraj]

[[bn:জলবায়ু পরিবর্তন]]

Chicken

2023-10-13T20:47:13Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Chicken''' the chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red jungle fowl originally from Southeastern Asia and belongs to the genus Gallus of the family Phasianidae. A rooster or cock is an adult male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat, and hardened breastbone tip, and a younger male may be called a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. An adult female bird is called a hen, and a sexually immature fem..."

'''Chicken''' the chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red jungle fowl originally from Southeastern Asia and belongs to the genus Gallus of the family Phasianidae. A rooster or cock is an adult male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat, and hardened breastbone tip, and a younger male may be called a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. An adult female bird is called a hen, and a sexually immature female is called a pullet. A broiler is a young chicken, usually up to 4-5 weeks of age of either sex, that is tender meat with soft, pliable, smooth, textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage suitable for broiling exposing food to direct radiant heat, either on a grill over the live coals or below a gas burner or electric coil. Chickens are permitted to roam freely instead of being contained in any manner, and they must have daytime access to open-air runs during at least half of their life, known as scavenging chicken.

Originally raised for cock fighting or special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic period (4th–2nd centuries BC). Humans now keep chickens primarily as a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and as pets. Mature female chicken, which has been kept for egg-laying purposes, especially in current egg production, is called Layer. Chickens are among the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 23.7 billion as of 2018, up from more than 19 billion in 2011. There are more chickens in the world than any other bird. Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. They are owing to the relative ease and low cost of raising chickens compared to mammals such as cattle or hogs. [Quazi M Emdadul Haque]

Chemotherapy

2023-10-13T20:47:12Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Chemotherapy''' is defined as using powerful chemical compounds as drugs to kill rapidly growing cells in the body. While chemotherapy is mostly used to treat cancer cells due to their rapid growth, it could also be used to treat bone marrow disorders and immune system diseases. Many different chemotherapeutic drugs are available in the market, which can be used alone or in combination to treat different types of cancer. Major categories of chemotherapy agents includ..."

'''Chemotherapy''' is defined as using powerful chemical compounds as drugs to kill rapidly growing cells in the body. While chemotherapy is mostly used to treat cancer cells due to their rapid growth, it could also be used to treat bone marrow disorders and immune system diseases. Many different chemotherapeutic drugs are available in the market, which can be used alone or in combination to treat different types of cancer. Major categories of chemotherapy agents include the alkylating agents (chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, thiotepa, and busulfan), antimetabolites (purine antagonists, pyrimidine antagonists, and folate antagonists), plant alkaloids (actinomycin D, doxorubicin, and mitomycin) and antitumor antibiotics (Doxorubicin, mitoxantrone, and bleomycin).

The chemotherapy drugs may be administered orally, or injected into a muscle (intramuscular injection), injected under the skin (subcutaneous injection), or into a vein (intravenous chemotherapy). The mode of administration of these drugs depends on the cancer types and/or the nature of the drugs. No matter what the administration method is, chemotherapy drugs exert their effects through absorption into the blood and then are carried around the body.

The primary goal of chemotherapy could be either to cure the cancer, to prepare for other treatments or ease signs and symptoms of cancer by killing rapidly dividing cancer cells. Although chemotherapy is an effective way to treat many types of cancer by killing the fast-growing cancer cells, the surrounding normal cells of the target organ system could also be killed, and hence, chemotherapy treatments carry a risk of side effects. Some of these side effects are mild and treatable (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, etc.), while others can cause serious complications, needing special attention. [Md. Ismail Hosen]

[[bn:কেমোথেরাপি]]

Cheese

2023-10-13T20:47:10Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Cheese''' or Paneer is a kind of dairy product that is made by special processing of curd. A special type of protein named casein in milk plays an important role in making cheese. Curd obtained by coagulating milk with the help of an enzyme or acid is separated and then processed through several steps to concentrate protein and fat while making cheese. In the final stage, the curd is cured at a specific temperature and humidity with the help of selected microorganisms..."

'''Cheese''' or Paneer is a kind of dairy product that is made by special processing of curd. A special type of protein named casein in milk plays an important role in making cheese. Curd obtained by coagulating milk with the help of an enzyme or acid is separated and then processed through several steps to concentrate protein and fat while making cheese. In the final stage, the curd is cured at a specific temperature and humidity with the help of selected microorganisms to ensure distinct taste, odor, and texture specific to each type of cheese. This process of cheese curing is called ripening.

Cheese is made from the milk of domestic animals like cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, etc. It is speculated that cheese evolved some 8000 years ago between the then Tigris and Euphrates rivers (present-day Turkey). More than a thousand different cheese varieties of unique taste, odor, and texture are available throughout the world. Preparation of some of these cheese varieties requires up to 2 years. However, the preparation of the majority of the cheese varieties takes a period ranging from several hours to several months.

Cheese is divided into several categories based on texture – soft, semi-hard, hard, and very hard. Moreover, cheese is of two kinds depending on the milk coagulating agent – rennet cheese and acid cheese. Rennet is a special enzyme that is generally collected from the stomach of a milk-fed calf or kid. However, rennet collected from bacteria is widely used throughout the world now. Eighty percent of the cheeses produced worldwide are prepared from milk coagulated by rennet. Cheddar, Emmental, Parmesan, Mozzarella, Stilton, Oshtogram cheese, etc., are notable rennet cheeses. Rennet cheeses are generally ripened, starting from 3 days to as long as 9 months, in some instances even longer. The rest of the cheese varieties are prepared by adding acid to hot milk by making curd. These types of cheese take only several hours to prepare because ripening is not required. Paneer for cooking, Cottage cheese, Cream cheese, Quark, etc., are note-worthy acid cheeses. More recently, a special type of cheese named processed cheese has become very popular, made by cooking rennet or acid cheeses and adding particular kinds of salts. These cheeses can be stored for longer periods.

Cheese is a highly nutritious food. Based on texture, cheese generally contains 20-30% fat, 15-20% protein, and 4-12% salt. Cheese is an ideal food for infants, patients, older people, and pregnant mothers as cheese becomes an easily digestible food through ripening. Cheese is usually consumed as such as an item of food. However, cheese is widely used as an ingredient for different dishes. For example, the use of Mozzarella cheese for making pizza, processed cheese for making a burger, and Ricotta cheese for making bakery products are widespread throughout the world. On the other hand, Paneer is used in India and Pakistan for making different types of curry dishes like chana-paneer, palak-paneer, etc.

The production of cheese is progressively increasing throughout the world. Countries like France, UK, USA, Ireland, Australia, etc., are noteworthy among the highest cheese producers. Cheese is becoming popular in Bangladesh very fast. Many small and large cheese factories have been established in different areas like Thakurgaon, Rangpur, Kishoreganj, Sirajganj, Munshiganj, etc. [Raihan Habib]

''See also'' [[Milk|milk]], [[Dairy Product|dairy product]].

[[bn:চিজ]]

Cellulose

2023-10-13T20:47:09Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Cellulose''' is the most common biopolymer, and it can be found in an extensive range of living organisms that employ it as a support material. It is a crucial constituent in the firm cell wall of plants. In 1838, the French chemist Anselme Payen first discovered cellulose when studying plant cell walls. Cellulose is made up of a 10,000 to 15,000 linear chain of glucose molecules joined by acetal oxygen covalent links between the C1 of one glucose ring with the C4 of..."

'''Cellulose''' is the most common biopolymer, and it can be found in an extensive range of living organisms that employ it as a support material. It is a crucial constituent in the firm cell wall of plants. In 1838, the French chemist Anselme Payen first discovered cellulose when studying plant cell walls. Cellulose is made up of a 10,000 to 15,000 linear chain of glucose molecules joined by acetal oxygen covalent links between the C1 of one glucose ring with the C4 of the next ring, which is formed via β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. In disparity to this linking pattern, α(1→4)-glycosidic linkages are in starch and glycogen. Cellulose is a straight-chain polymer. Several cellulose chains are connected by hydrogen bonds and form elementary fibrils, which aggregate into 5-50 nm diameter and several microns in length microfibrils. The microfibrils, in turn, are bundled together to form microfibrils. The microfibrils of cellulose are extremely tough and inflexible due to hydrogen bonds. Humans lack the enzymes (cellulase) to break down the beta acetal bonds. Therefore, cellulose cannot be digested by them. On the other hand, the intestine tract of animals such as termites, sheep, goats, cows, and horses have symbiotic bacteria that have the appropriate enzymes to break down or hydrolyze the cellulose and other enzymes needed to digest cellulose in the GI tract. Cellulose particles are known as 'green' substances. Cellulose is a polysaccharide (or carbohydrate) that poses minor damage to the environment, health, or safety. It has diverse use, including food additives (thickener, emulsion stabilizer, fiber), cellophane, artificial tears, chronic wound treatment (scaffolding structure for tissue engineering, artificial blood vessels, cartilage, etc.), and drug tablets filler material. [Mohammad Riazul Islam]

[[bn:সেলুলোজ]]

Cell

2023-10-13T20:47:07Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Cell''' are the basic building blocks of all living things.All living beings are composed of cells and they are the smallest units of a structure in every living thing. Some organisms are unicellular in which the entire organism is a single cell, such as a bacterium or yeast. On the other hand, in plants and animals, cells are the building blocks of these multicellular organisms. A cell is an individual unit in the sense that it is capable of metabolizing its nutrien..."

'''Cell''' are the basic building blocks of all living things.All living beings are composed of cells and they are the smallest units of a structure in every living thing. Some organisms are unicellular in which the entire organism is a single cell, such as a bacterium or yeast. On the other hand, in plants and animals, cells are the building blocks of these multicellular organisms. A cell is an individual unit in the sense that it is capable of metabolizing its nutrients, synthesizing essential biomolecules, providing its energy, and replicating itself to produce the next generations. There are three main parts of a cell that include the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm. The cell is surrounded by the cell membrane which regulates the transport of substances into and out of the cell. The nucleus is another cellular structure that contains the nucleolus and the majority of the cell’s DNA is found there. RNA synthesis also happens there. The cytoplasm refers to the fluid inside the cell. Cells have many organelles that include mitochondria, which are responsible for supplying the energy necessary for cell function and survival; lysosomes, which engulf and remove unwanted and harmful materials within the cell; and the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, which play central roles in maintaining the internal organization of the cell. Various molecules are synthesized, processed, sorted, and finally targeted to specific locations within the cell by these two organelles.Plant cells also contain chloroplasts, which mediate the function of photosynthesis. The space within the cytoplasm that is not occupied by these organelles is called the cytosol. The cytosol has an organized framework of fibrous molecules which is called the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton provides a scaffold due to which a cell gains its shape and can move as well as organelles can move inside the cell. The cytoplasm is where most chemical reactions take place and where most proteins are made. More than 30 trillion cells are present in the human body. [Tahirah Yasmin]

[[bn:কোষ]]

Camphor

2023-10-13T20:47:06Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Camphor''' is a wax-like, combustible and transparent solid with a heavy aromatic odor. It is resembled by the formula C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O and chemically it’s a terpenoid. Camphor is found in different essential oils in both of its two enantiomeric states. The oil of camphor wood, ''Cinnamomumcamphora'' L. Sieb is the highest source of camphor and in some related varieties, notably ''Ocoteausambarensis'' Eng., it is also abundant. Besides, camphor contrib..."

'''Camphor''' is a wax-like, combustible and transparent solid with a heavy aromatic odor. It is resembled by the formula C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O and chemically it’s a terpenoid. Camphor is found in different essential oils in both of its two enantiomeric states. The oil of camphor wood, ''Cinnamomumcamphora'' L. Sieb is the highest source of camphor and in some related varieties, notably ''Ocoteausambarensis'' Eng., it is also abundant. Besides, camphor contributes in making lavender, sage, and rosemary odorous. In Asia, ''Ocimumkilimandscharicum'' Baker ex Gurkeis used as a major contributor to camphor production. However, industrially turpentine oils can be used for its synthetic production. Camphor oil is basically extracted via steam distillation of timber. Here, the wood of camphor containing trees are cut down and the wood chips are roasted to produce vapor that undergoes subsequent condensation. For producing camphor from a tree, it should be at least half a century old. Camphor has long been known to people, and it is mentioned in the Quran and in different Arabian writings belonging to 6th century, and also in other cultures. It is used as an effective fumigant against red fire ants and also has its use as a mosquito repellent because of its alleged toxic potential. Historically, this compound has long been used as antiseptic, analgesic, antipruritic, counterirritant and rubefacient. Camphor has a strong penetrating odor, besides its application causes a sensation of heat and anesthesizing effect. Historically, these have caused tropical people to believe it as a strong and effective medicine. [Mohammad Zashim Uddin]

[[bn:কর্পূর]]

Blood Thinner

2023-10-13T20:47:05Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Blood Thinner''' blood thinners are pharmacological products or drugs that help smooth flow of blood through the blood vessels and prevent existing coagulated blood from getting larger. Formation of clot in the blood vessels (including veins, arteries or capillaries) and heart can cause blockages, strokes, and heart attacks. Blood thinners do not actually make the blood thinner or dissolve clots, but they prevent free-flowing blood from forming new lumps and restrict..."

'''Blood Thinner''' blood thinners are pharmacological products or drugs that help smooth flow of blood through the blood vessels and prevent existing coagulated blood from getting larger. Formation of clot in the blood vessels (including veins, arteries or capillaries) and heart can cause blockages, strokes, and heart attacks. Blood thinners do not actually make the blood thinner or dissolve clots, but they prevent free-flowing blood from forming new lumps and restricts the growth of preformed clots. The types of blood thinners include (i) Anticoagulants – examples are heparin, fondaparinux, dalteparin, warfarin, and enoxaparin that are given as a shot or as an intravenous infusion to slow down the formation of blood clots; and (ii) Antiplatelet drugs – examples are cilostazol pills or aspirin, which restrict blood platelets from clustering together to form a lump.

People who have already suffered a heart attack or stroke may need a blood thinner since this drug can reduce the risk of having a second episode. Patients with heart disease or blood vessel disease, arrhythmia, or deep vein thrombosis (a precarious situation due to blood clot that often forms in the lower limbs) may need blood thinners. Some anticoagulants compete with vitamin K needed to initiate the formation of clotting factors, which assist the blood cells and platelets stick to each other and the blood vessel lining to prevent blood loss. There are risks associated with the use of blood thinners as these drugs will make someone to bleed more than normal even with a small cut in the body. It is important to take just enough drug to prevent clot formation, but not in excess that causes oozing. [Laila Noor Islam]

''See also'' [[Blood|blood]], [[Blood Presser|blood presser]].

[[bn:রক্তথিনার]]

Blood Pressure

2023-10-13T20:47:03Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Blood Pressure''' is the pressure or force of blood provided against the blood vessel wall. When the heart contracts, it forces the blood out of the left ventricle. Upon exclusion, it travels through blood vessels to different body parts. While moving, it exerts a force on the blood vessel. Due to friction of blood with the blood vessel, pressure arises that is called blood pressure. Most of the blood is forcefully released from the heart when the heart contracts. Th..."

'''Blood Pressure''' is the pressure or force of blood provided against the blood vessel wall. When the heart contracts, it forces the blood out of the left ventricle. Upon exclusion, it travels through blood vessels to different body parts. While moving, it exerts a force on the blood vessel. Due to friction of blood with the blood vessel, pressure arises that is called blood pressure. Most of the blood is forcefully released from the heart when the heart contracts. This contraction is called systole, and the pressure generated in the vessel is called systolic blood pressure; when the heart gets relaxed and filled with blood, the pressure level at the vessel reaches a minimum, called relaxed or diastolic blood pressure. The optimal blood pressure is less than 120/80 (systolic/diastolic).

In the body, blood pressure is regulated via a complex regulatory process that involves numerous pathways, including the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, endothelins, mineralocorticoid, arterial baroreceptors, atrial natriuretic peptide, and glucocorticoid steroids dependent mechanisms. Any dysregulation of these can lead to the development of hyper- or hypotension. Hypertension is when either systolic or diastolic or blood pressure is raised and maintained consistently to more than normal levels. Increased systemic vascular resistance, increased cardiac output, or both are responsible for this adverse situation. An unhealthy lifestyle, irregular physical activity, aging, and certain health conditions, such as obesity and diabetes, can make blood vessels less elastic, increase systemic vascular resistance, and reduce vasodilatation, causing higher systolic blood pressure (frequently with a normal diastolic pressure). This can critically harm vital organs like the kidneys, heart, brain, eyes, and other body organs. In contrast, hypotension develops when blood pressure fails to maintain the minimum level. The most prominent reasons for hypotension could be pregnancy, impaired heart and heart valve conditions, endocrine disorders, dehydration, blood loss, septicemia, anaphylaxis, etc. Because of a lack of blood, oxygen, and other nutrients, a hypotensive person feels tired or dizzy. Several medications are now used to control abnormal blood pressure. For example, angiotensin-2 receptor blockers (ARBs), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, diuretics, and beta channel blockers are mostly prescribed by physicians to treat abnormal blood pressure. [MM Towhidul Islam]

''See also'' [[Blood|blood]], [[Blood Thinner|blood thinner]].

[[bn:রক্তচাপ]]

Blood

2023-10-13T20:47:02Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Blood''' is perhaps the most complex fluid found in nature and it is essential to life of humans and other vertebrates. Blood is a suspension of cells in an aqueous medium containing many micro- and macro-molecules, including various proteins, hormones, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, glucose, and nutrients. Blood is circulated throughout the body to deliver nutrients and oxygen to cells of the body, and transport metabolic waste products including carbon dioxide aw..."

'''Blood''' is perhaps the most complex fluid found in nature and it is essential to life of humans and other vertebrates. Blood is a suspension of cells in an aqueous medium containing many micro- and macro-molecules, including various proteins, hormones, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, glucose, and nutrients. Blood is circulated throughout the body to deliver nutrients and oxygen to cells of the body, and transport metabolic waste products including carbon dioxide away from the cells. It is circulated through the blood vessels (arteries and veins) by the pumping action of the heart. In some vertebrates, blood carries oxygen from the inhaled air through arteries to tissues and cells that utilize oxygen to carry out metabolic activities, while the veins carry deoxygenated blood containing carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of metabolism, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. The arterial blood is bright red, while the venous blood is dark red in color.

The fluid portion of the blood is called plasma, representing about 55% of the blood volume and the blood cells constitute about 45%. The main protein in plasma is albumin which functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood and helps keep fluid in the bloodstream, so it doesn't leak into other tissues. The most numerous cells of blood are erythrocytes or red blood cells that are non-nucleated in mammals and in human they have the shape of biconcave discs. The other cells in blood include the leukocytes or white blood cells that give protection against invading pathogens and foreign tissues, and platelets (also called thrombocytes) that are essential in blood clotting. Blood is typed on the basis of genetically determined antigens present on the surface of erythrocytes. The erythrocytes contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein that binds oxygen and facilitates its transportation through the blood. Some animals, such as crustaceans, arthropods, octopus, use hemocyanin (a copper-containing protein) to carry oxygen instead of hemoglobin to their bloodstream.

Blood has no substitute. Only the generous blood donors can donate their blood for those who need a blood transfusion to save lives. [Laila Noor Islam]

''See also'' [[Blood Presser|blood presser]], [[Blood Thinner|blood thinner]].

[[bn:রক্ত]]

Bloat

2023-10-13T20:47:01Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Bloat''' is a serious health problem of domestic ruminants. A bloat is a form of indigestion marked by excessive gas accumulation in the rumen. During digestion, gas is produced as part of the normal process and is usually released by the eructation process from the body. Bloat happens when any reason disrupts this eructation process loss of gas. There are two types of bloat. The most common type of blot is gassy bloat and the second type of bloat is frothy bloat. T..."

'''Bloat''' is a serious health problem of domestic ruminants. A bloat is a form of indigestion marked by excessive gas accumulation in the rumen. During digestion, gas is produced as part of the normal process and is usually released by the eructation process from the body. Bloat happens when any reason disrupts this eructation process loss of gas. There are two types of bloat. The most common type of blot is gassy bloat and the second type of bloat is frothy bloat.

The cause of bloat is when the food is congested in the rumen, by eating rotten feed or excess ingesting of succulent green grass or leguminous plant.
Clinical Signs Swollen the left abdomen is the clearest sign of bloat. The disease is usually associated with depression followed by respiratory distress, abdominal pain, and anorexia. The affected animals stop feeding and ruminating. Death can occur within 20 to 30 minutes after the development of bloat if animals do not get treatment in time.

Diagnosis Disease can easily be diagnosed by observing the clinical sign. History of feeding and passing a stomach tube into the rumen will differentiate between gassy and frothy bloat.
Treatment Using a stomach tube to remove gas is the best treatment for gassy bloat. Rumen puncher by trochar and cannula to relieve gas are also recommended for the treatment of bloat. Linseed oil and oil turpentine effectively reduce gas production in the rumen.

Prevention Adequate fiber diet (hay or straw) should be included during feed formulation. In particular, try and keep up fiber intakes during risky periods. Farmers must be careful with excess concentrate feeding. Regular animal health inspections and advice from veterinarians can reduce bloat. [Md. Giasuddin]

[[bn:ব্লোট]]

Black Quarter

2023-10-13T20:46:35Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Black Quarter''' the disease Black Quarter is also known as Black leg and Badla in Bangala. In Bangladesh, this disease is mostly found in the rainy season, and hence the disease is named Badla. It is an acute, highly fatal infectious disease in cattle and sheep. The disease primarily affects the younger stocks, aged between 6 months to 2 years in cattle. The disease affects ruminants all over the world. The organism of this disease mainly affects leg and neck muscle..."

'''Black Quarter''' the disease Black Quarter is also known as Black leg and Badla in Bangala. In Bangladesh, this disease is mostly found in the rainy season, and hence the disease is named Badla. It is an acute, highly fatal infectious disease in cattle and sheep. The disease primarily affects the younger stocks, aged between 6 months to 2 years in cattle. The disease affects ruminants all over the world. The organism of this disease mainly affects leg and neck muscles.

''Causal agent'' The disease is caused by ''Clostridium chauvoei'', a gram-positive bacteria. ''C chauvoei'' is found naturally in contaminated soil, water, and the intestinal tract of live and dead animals. This anaerobic organism enters the body through feed or wound that causes disease. The disease usually occurs in summer and spring in Bangladesh.

''Clinical signs'' In some cases, animals may be found dead without showing any symptoms. High fever (41-43<sup>0</sup> C) was observed in infected animals. Anorexia, depression, and lameness become visible. The affected muscle will be swelling, hot, and painful. Gas will be accumulated in the rumen, and which causes difficulty breathing, animals will die within a short time.

''Diagnosis'' The presence of crepitus and swelling of large muscles are characteristics of this disease's clinical findings. In the laboratory, causative organisms can be isolated and identified in tissue samples, and PCR assay is reported to be reliable for clinical samples. Wounds can be found in affected sheep.

''Treatment'' Antibiotics (penicillin) and antiserum treatments are recommended in case of this disease. To relieve gas, torcher and cannula can be used to puncher rumen for relieving gas.

''Control'' Animals should be vaccinated every six months interval. All unaffected cattle can be vaccinated and treated with antibiotics in outbreak areas. Animals should be moved from affected pastures. Carcasses should be destroyed by deep burial. Sheep should be vaccinated one month before shearing. [Md. Giasuddin]

[[bn:ব্ল্যাক কোয়ার্টার]]

Biosafety

2023-10-13T20:46:34Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Biosafety''' refers to the safe handling and containment of biohazards (hazardous biological substances) and also prevents the large-scale loss of biological integrity. In health and medicine, the biosafety discipline takes measures to dwindle the health risk from potential exposure to biohazards by preventing personnel exposure and environmental release.The biosafety practices are based on two principles: biorisk assessment and biocontainment. Biorisk assessment is..."

'''Biosafety''' refers to the safe handling and containment of biohazards (hazardous biological substances) and also prevents the large-scale loss of biological integrity. In health and medicine, the biosafety discipline takes measures to dwindle the health risk from potential exposure to biohazards by preventing personnel exposure and environmental release.The biosafety practices are based on two principles: biorisk assessment and biocontainment. Biorisk assessment is the process to identify acceptable and unacceptable risks, biosecurity risks associated with biohazards, and their potential consequences. Based on a risk assessment these pathogen hazards are categorized into four risk groups (RGs) of ascending risk (RG1-RG4). The biorisk could arise from an unintentional exposure, accidental release or loss, theft, misuse, unauthorized access, or intentional unauthorized release (bioterrorism). On the other hand, primary and secondary biocontainment describe safe methods for properly managing biohazardous agents in the working environment where they are being handled or maintained. Therefore, a biosafety level (BSL) is a set of biocontainment precautions required to handle dangerous biohazards in aconfined facility.

The containment levels range from the lowest BSL-1 (or P1) with limited precautions relative to other levels, to the highest BSL-4 (or P4) for the utmost level of biosafety precautions. Thus, the assignment of a BSL takes into consideration the organism used, the facilities available, and the equipment practices and procedures. In general, as the relative risk of an agent increases the degree of containment for working with the agent must also increase not only because of their virulence but also because of their potential for use in bioterrorism. Biosafety is also related to some other fields like agriculture, biotechnology, ecology, chemistry, synthetic biology, exobiology, etc. Among these, agriculture biosafety assesses and monitors the effects of potential gene flow, competitiveness and the effects on other organisms, as well as probable harmful effects of the products on the health of humans and animals.

In the context of agricultural pathogens, it relates to safety practices and procedures employed to stave off unintended infection of plants or animals or the environmental release of pathogenic agents. Biotechnological biosafety refers to the need to protect the environment and health from the possible adverse effects of biotechnologically modified organisms and their resulting products which is somewhat related to the biosafety of synthetic biology. The exobiology biosafety aims for planetary protection and interplanetary contamination prevention. [Md. Rakibul Islam]

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Biopolymers

2023-10-13T20:46:33Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Biopolymers''' are polymers that formed in natural conditions by complex metabolic processes during cell’s growth cycles of most organisms. To synthesize biopolymers living organisms use simple monomeric units such as sugars, sugar derivatives, amino acids, nucleotides, etc. Starch, cellulose, alginate, lignin, gelatin, proteins, peptides, & nucleic acids are all examples of biopolymers. These biopolymers contribute a significant fraction of cellular dry weight in..."

'''Biopolymers''' are polymers that formed in natural conditions by complex metabolic processes during cell’s growth cycles of most organisms. To synthesize biopolymers living organisms use simple monomeric units such as sugars, sugar derivatives, amino acids, nucleotides, etc. Starch, cellulose, alginate, lignin, gelatin, proteins, peptides, & nucleic acids are all examples of biopolymers. These biopolymers contribute a significant fraction of cellular dry weight in most organisms. There is an increasing interest in more complex polysaccharides such as chitin, chitosan, curdlan, hyaluronic acid, pullulan, and xantham produced by bacteria and fungi.

Biopolymers are biodegradable, but they differ from biodegradable polymers, as biodegradable polymers are artificially synthesized from natural sources. Biobased polymers are derived from renewable sources, whereas bioplastics are not always produced from natural sources, and both are usually biodegradable. Biopolymers can be sustainable, carbon-neutral, and renewable. Some biodegradable biopolymers are also compostable. For example, Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) can be broken down by 90% in an industrial composting plant.

Biopolymers have been known from the beginning of civilizations to have many applications; for example, natural rubber, cotton, wool, cork, and leather are all biopolymers. In the twenty-first century, biopolymer research and development have gained tremendous interest, therefore, not limited to these areas and the use of biopolymers broadening to the field of agriculture film, soil-retention sheeting, waste bags, packaging material, food containers, drug-delivery systems, filtration systems, bioresorbable scaffolds for tissue engineering, surgical implant devices, wound healing products, hygiene, and protective clothing, etc. Biopolymers may lack the mechanical properties and stability for medical applications in aqueous environments. Cross-linking of biopolymers using nontoxic reagents can improve their functionality without causing cytotoxicity. [Sohidul Islam]

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Biopharmaceuticals

2023-10-13T20:46:31Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Biopharmaceuticals''' the term ‘Pharmaceutical’ indicates any drug or medicine used for medical purposes. The pharmaceuticals that are obtained from biological sources are termed Biopharmaceuticals or biologics. However, some biotechnologists make a difference between biopharmaceuticals and biologics based on the methods employed to manufacture them. According to them, those products obtained from biological sources using biotechnological principles and procedure..."

'''Biopharmaceuticals''' the term ‘Pharmaceutical’ indicates any drug or medicine used for medical purposes. The pharmaceuticals that are obtained from biological sources are termed Biopharmaceuticals or biologics. However, some biotechnologists make a difference between biopharmaceuticals and biologics based on the methods employed to manufacture them. According to them, those products obtained from biological sources using biotechnological principles and procedures such as rDNA technology, gene cloning technology, gene mutation technology, hybridoma technology, fermentation technology, etc, are biopharmaceuticals. In comparison, those products obtained from native biological sources without employing any such engineering principles and techniques except simple extraction, centrifugation processes, etc., are usually termed biologics. However, since biopharmaceuticals and biologics are obtained from biological sources, these are synonymous terms and are grouped as the same products by many biotechnologists. Biopharmaceuticals or biologics are biotechnology products, biotech medicines, and biotherapeutics.

Biopharmaceuticals include recombinant proteins or peptides (eg, interferons, interleukins, hematopoietic growth factors, hormones, etc), monoclonal antibodies, and nucleic acids (gene therapy and antisense therapy), antiserum, vaccines, blood products, etc. Biopharmaceuticals are used for therapeutic or in vivo diagnostic purposes. Insulin was the first FDA-approved biopharmaceutical developed by Genentech using recombinant DNA Technology but licensed to Eli Lilly and Company. They manufactured and marketed the product in 1982 in the name of Humulin® (recombinant human insulin).

Since biopharmaceuticals are very complex molecules in structure and expressed or produced by a living system, it is impossible to replicate in the same manner as pharmaceuticals or traditional drug molecules. Even from the same manufacturer, biopharmaceutical products of two different batches will not be the same. For these reasons, a version of an innovator's biopharmaceuticals may not be appropriately termed as ‘generic’ as used for traditional pharmaceuticals or drugs. [Md. Abdul Mazid]

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Biomass

2023-10-13T20:46:30Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Biomass''' is a plant and animal organic material that can be converted from chemical energy to thermal energy in a suitable process. The total amount of living and biological matter in every ecological area is scientifically measured as biomass. Although carbon is the main component of biomass, it usually contains hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and it also includes some alkaline or acidic elements and heavy metals. The fundamental difference between biomass and fos..."

'''Biomass''' is a plant and animal organic material that can be converted from chemical energy to thermal energy in a suitable process. The total amount of living and biological matter in every ecological area is scientifically measured as biomass. Although carbon is the main component of biomass, it usually contains hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and it also includes some alkaline or acidic elements and heavy metals. The fundamental difference between biomass and fossil fuels is the huge time lag. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas made from biomass take millions of years, and the energy density of fossil fuels is many times higher. When energy is produced from fossil fuels, carbon dioxide and water vapor are not absorbed and released into the air, increasing their concentration in the atmosphere. On the other hand, the energy stored in biomass is mainly chemical energy extracted by plants from the sun's photons through photosynthesis. Since the photosynthesis process of plants can continue till its demise, biomass is considered a group of fuel products that are renewable raw materials generated from the organic process.

Basically, agricultural and forest products are considered 'natural biomass.' And natural biomass-based industrial waste products, animal wastes, residues of biodegradable parts, and organic fractions of industrial and municipal wastes are considered 'waste biomass. 'Biogas produced by microorganisms from urban waste disposal or ethanol made from grain starch, cellulose, sugars, etc., of the industrial plants, or biodiesel produced from edible oils, animal fats, greases, etc., are also considered biomass. Biomass is the primary energy source for rural households in different countries, including Bangladesh. The main reason is that biomass is a renewable and low-sulfur-containing clean energy source. Biomass is environmentally friendly as it emits fewer greenhouse gases and other harmful gases than other fuels. [Abu Torab Md. Abdur Rahim]

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Biological Weapon

2023-10-13T20:46:29Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Biological Weapon''' the use of biological substances intended to cause harm, disable or even kill humans, animals or plants as a war act is known as biological weapon (bioweapon). The weapons can be either biological toxins (eg botulinum, ricin, etc) or disease-causing infectious agents like bacteria (eg, plague, anthrax, or Q fever), viruses (smallpox, hepatitis, etc.), insects and fungi. Biological weapon can also be called germ warfare. More than 180 pathogens ha..."

'''Biological Weapon''' the use of biological substances intended to cause harm, disable or even kill humans, animals or plants as a war act is known as biological weapon (bioweapon). The weapons can be either biological toxins (eg botulinum, ricin, etc) or disease-causing infectious agents like bacteria (eg, plague, anthrax, or Q fever), viruses (smallpox, hepatitis, etc.), insects and fungi. Biological weapon can also be called germ warfare. More than 180 pathogens have been identified as biological weapons. Biological warfare and warfare differ from each other in the sense that the latter involves other types of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), including nuclear warfare, chemical warfare, etc. Biologically created weapons may be either lethal or non-lethal, and their target varies from a group of people to an entire population. Lethal biological weapons may have the capacity to kill masses; however, they are incapable of causing massive destruction of buildings, infrastructure, or equipment.The outcome of bioweapon usage may range from minor to severe depending on the agent itself, its method of development, its durability in the environment, and the route of infection. Bioweapons can be developed, procured, stored or deployed by nations, states, non-national groups or bioterrorists, and may spread via aerosol sprays, food or water, explosive devices, and absorption or injection into the skin.

Some essential features of bioweapons are (i) efficiency: a drop of botulinum toxin can wipe out a population; (ii) cost-effective: biological weapons are more cheap than chemical and nuclear weapons as desired amount of bacteria or viruses can be conveniently grown in the lab; (iii) easy to deliver even by post-without the targets being aware as done during 2001 Anthrax attack; (iv) unpredictable: airborne toxic substances, for instance, may spread out to non-target areas, causing harm to own troops or people; (v) long-term effect: anthrax can exist in soil for about 50 years allowing possibility of unwanted side effects of infecting anybody coming in contact; (vi) effectiveness: continuous research must be carried out to check the extent of efficacy of the biological weapon.

Some potential biological weapons are (i) Anthrax bacteria causing inhalation septicemia, and flu-like symptoms ; (ii) ''Clostridium botulinum'' through contaminated food and water causes neurological complications leading to paralysis; (iii ''Clostridium perfringes'' through open wound causes gas gangrene and severe abdominal cramp; (iv) Smallpox virus through direct contact with the contaminated object and inhalation causes Persistent Fever and Rash on body parts; (v) RICIN, a protein toxin from castor seed through contaminated food or water, causes severe abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea, and pulmonaryedema.

In order to prevent the use of bioweapons in wars, some initiatives had been taken by nations. An agreement, The Geneva Protocol, was signed in 1925 so that no biological means and asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases can be used during war. Fifty years later, a ban on any development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons was introduced in Biological Weapon Convention (1975). Hence, biological agent usage is considered a war crime. [Md. Jashim Uddin]

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Bioinformatics

2023-10-13T20:46:28Z

Nasirkhan: Created page with "'''Bioinformatics''' emergence of bioinformatics was possible by the merging of two different areas- Biology and Computer science. The scope of bioinformatics involves deposition, storage, and retrieval, of biological data. It is a multidisciplinary field of science, which harnesses biology, medicine, mathematics, chemistry, computer science, information technology, and statistics to facilitate the analysis and interpretation the complex biological data, particularly in..."

'''Bioinformatics''' emergence of bioinformatics was possible by the merging of two different areas- Biology and Computer science. The scope of bioinformatics involves deposition, storage, and retrieval, of biological data. It is a multidisciplinary field of science, which harnesses biology, medicine, mathematics, chemistry, computer science, information technology, and statistics to facilitate the analysis and interpretation the complex biological data, particularly in the field of genomics. Although, the word ‘bioinformatics’ was first coined in 1968, the first comprehensive definition was published in 1978. Another term ‘Computational Biology’ can also be used to refer Bioinformatics. However, in the case of strict definition, computational biology predominantly involves mathematical modeling and simulations of biological data as well as systems. The main components of bioinformatics include - the development of software and algorithms for the analysis of diverse biological data and the interpretation of complex biological data, by employing different mathematical and statistical algorithms. Mathematical and Statistical algorithms typically are used for processing, analyzing, and visualizing biological data in order to make predictions in a biologically meaningful manner. The bioinformatics toolbox includes but not limited to computer programs such as The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST). Bioinformatics database such as Ensemble is a prominent example of biological data storage. Overall, Bioinformatics has now become an essential tool for the management and handling of huge amount of data in modern biology and medicine.

[[Image:Bioinformatics.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|Interaction of disciplines that have contributed to the formation of bioinformatics]]

One of the important utility of Bioinformatics is the development of powerful algorithms for measuring DNA sequence similarity. Another application of bioinformatics is to build predictive mathematical models based on the experimental data. One of the most popular use of bioinformatics include the identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes and DNA sequences. Bioinformatics can also be used to predict proteins-protein interactions. In summary, Bioinformatics algorithms have diverse utilities, including identification functional aspects of genes and proteins as well as predicting the three-dimensional shapes of proteins. The classic data of bioinformatics include DNA sequences composed of four nucleotides or whole genomes; amino acid sequences of proteins; and three-dimensional structures of proteins. [Sajib Chakraborty]

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